Hindu Samskars

HINDU SAMSKAR

Ceremony and sacrament are two words in the English language which are used for the Sanskrit word samskar. As regards ceremony it is mere formal observance on some solemn occasion an outward rite religious or sacred. A sacrament, as defined in the Christian theology, is a visible sign of an invisible grace. It is very near to the Hindu concept of samskar which has been defined as a peculiar excellence accruing from the performance of rites ordained by the shastras as an excellence residing in the soul or in the body.

Samskar in Hindu religion is like the grammar by which the colloquial speech, raw and fluctuating, is shaped and systematized for rendering it fit to play a universal and higher role. The concept of Samskar has been meaningfully brought out by Kalidas, the poet par excellence, in Raghuvamsh (III, 18) “ The body as it is born is like the raw stone (mani) from the mine and the samskaras are like the grinding and polishing by the gems-cutter. As in the case of the gem, the person who undergoes a Samskar shines with a new glow and luster.”

Manu, the foremost Hindu legislator has said that “a man is born a Shudra (uninitiated, like a raw stone), he gets a second birth by the performance of samskar and then becomes a dvija (twice born) and by acquiring knowledge he becomes a vipra (learned) and by attaining Brahma (the supreme knowledge) he becomes a Brahmin.”

Hindu samskaras start from Garbhadhana (impregnation) in the womb of the mother and end with antyeshti (funeral). Their number varies according to different authorities. However, a standard list of samskaras may be prepared. They are sixteen in number. A brief description of these samskaras is being given here. Elaborate rituals, performed with the recitation of mantras prescribed for them, have been omitted. They are available in various books written by modern Pundits.

According to Hindus, the life of a person does not start with his physical birth. It starts even earlier than that and is conditioned by parentage, heredity and environment. The mental conditioning of the parents also has an important bearing on the qualities and mental make-up of the person. A typical example of this is found in the Mahabharata. Dhritarashtra, the blind King, Pandu, the consumptive and Vidura, the wise man, all sons of the same father were so because of the mental conditioning of their mothers at the time of their conception.

Some Indian scholars go even further and suggest that there is a subtle body (sukshma sharira or bija sharira) which receives and preserves the subtle tendencies (Samskaras). This subtle body survives the perceptible body after the death and is responsible for making a new body of flesh and blood suggesting the idea of rebirth.

Garbhadhana: The first sacrament is known as Garbhadhana, which means placing the seed in the womb, i.e. impregnation.

The Hindu view of procreation is not limited to a biological phenomenon common to all animals. It has a higher and deeper meaning. It is considered a religious act and so has to be performed with all solemnity. A Hindu is born with three debts: devarina, rishirina and pirtririna. The first debt owed to the gods is repaid by discharging religious and social obligations, the second debt is repaid by studying and teaching and adding to the corpus of knowledge and the third debt is repaid by procreating children by wives lawfully married, so that the family line is not broken and the children so born offer pinda (cakes of rice) and tarpana (water) to the ancestors.

Consummation of marriage, according to Hindu scriptures, should take place on the fourth day after marriage. Hence it is called Chaturthi Karma (the fourth day action).

According to Sushruta, the famous physician (100 A.D.), for procreating healthy children the wife should not be below sixteen and the husband should not be aged below twenty five. The couple are required to copulate during the period of ritu only i.e. during the period of a woman’s menstruation. It lasts for sixteen days after starting of the menses. Of these sixteen days the first four nights are forbidden for procreation and the last four days are considered ideal.

Among the orthodox Hindus, during the first four days of the menstruation a woman is considered untouchable. Accepting food or even water from her hands is forbidden. Besides these four days the eleventh and the thirteenth nights are also prohibited for sexual union. The remaining ten nights are considered auspicious.

The Smrtis further mention that one desirous of a male child should perform garbhadhana in the even nights, i.e. the sixth, eighth, tenth and twelfth nights and the one desirous of a female child should perform it on the fifth, seventh, ninth and fifteenth nights.

For garbhadhan an auspicious moment is chosen. Havana( fire sacrifice) in the sacred fire is performed and amids the chanting of sacred mantras, specially prescribed for the event, the seed is placed in the womb.

People in modern times are surprised to know that even at the time of copulation mantras were chanted. But in ancient times in India, all acts especially procreation and marriage were considered religious obligations. Barring some orthodox Brahmin families, this samskar is not performed now.

Garbhadhana is, therefore, a very important samskar for the Hindus from the cultural point of view. Unlike the primitive man expressing wonder at the prospect of begetting a child, we find here a highly civilized community in which a man approaches his wife for performing a religious duty with an attitude of perfect serenity with the intention of having a child that would continue his family line.

Pumsavana: The second samskar is called Pumsavana, i.e. a sacrament meant to ensure the birth of a male child. After conception was ascertained, the embryo in the mother’s womb was consecrated. It was a medical and mental treatment of the pregnant mother and performed before the palpitation started in the third or fourth month after the pregnancy, on a day when the Moon was in a male constellation, particularly in the Tishya Nakshatra. The mother was required to keep fast on that day and juice of sprouts of a banyan tree are dropped in her right nostril amidst the chanting of Vedic mantras.

The conjunction of the Moon with a male constellation is symbolic of a virile male child. Hence the name Pumsavana has been given to this samskar. It has a medical purpose also Sushruta also mentions and recommends it as a special treatment for the healthy growth and nourishment of the embryo and the expectant mother. He says “Having pounded with milk any of herbs, viz. Vata Shunga, Sahadevi or Vishvadeva, one should pour three or four drops into the right nostril of the pregnant woman for the birth of a son. The woman must not spit the juice out. (Sushruta, Sharirasthana ch.II)

Anavalohana or Garbharakshana : It was performed to prevent miscarriage. For this purpose three or four drops of thick juice of Durva grass were administered in the right nostril of the woman. The husband then offered ahuti to Prajapati (god of procreation). Touching the heart of his wife he prayed to god Prajapati: “Protect my son from injuries.”

Simantonnayana. The third sacrament is called Simantonnayana or parting of the hair of the pregnant woman. It was performed in the fourth month after the pregnancy by the husband. Fire was kindled on a vedi and havana was performed in it. The pregnant woman sitting on a piece of deer or tiger skin grasped the hands of her husband and appropriate Vedic mantras were recited. The purpose of performing this samskar was symbolic as well as practical. It was believed that evil spirits attacked women during their pregnancy. This sacrament was performed to ward off such spirits. It was also meant to bring happiness to the mother and long life to the unborn child. It also indicates how advanced was the knowledge of the Hindus centuries before Christ in the field of physiology. From the fifth month after the pregnancy the brain formation of the child starts. The mother of the child was told to act on the advice of elderly ladies and avoid any physical or mental strain . To cheer her up the husband flattered her in several ways and himself parted her hair caressingly and after that put a garland of fragrant flowers or a golden necklace round her neck and blessed her to beget a heroic son in the tenth month.

For this samskar detailed hygiene and other rules have been prescribed for the pregnant woman and her husband by Sushruta and other writers on the medical science following him. One such rule is regarding Dohada, which requires fulfillment of longings of the pregnant woman. She is also advised to avoid coitus, over exertion, sleeping during the day, keeping awake at night, mounting a carriage, objects of fear, over excitement, retention of excreta and urine etc. (op.cit Ch. II). Some authorities have also recommended grinding of corns in a small domestic stone mill for smooth delivery. It would be noticed that the ancient authorities in India were very particular about taking all precautions to preserve the health of the pregnant woman and the child in her womb. She was advised to take wholesome food sufficient for her self and the nourishment of the child in her womb .

The second phase in the life of a child starts with its birth when it assumes independent existence. It would be pertinent to mention that on birth there is no difference between children of men and other animals. But if we go deeper into it we will find that a newly born human child is more helpless and dependent on others than infants of most other animals, who adopt themselves to their surroundings soon after the birth and start living independently of their parents in several ways. In some rare cases such as in case of tortoises the duty of the mother comes to an end after she has laid eggs. But a human child is so much dependent on others for several months that it cannot survive if left uncared. Even after that for several years it cannot do much without the help of others. It has to be trained and this training is called samskar. Persons not undergoing samskaras remained asanskrita – unpolished, uncouth and they were considered low in society.

Jatakarma: This sacrament is performed at the birth of the child. As soon as the child is delivered by the mother it assumes an independent existence. On the eve of the delivery, holy water is sprinkled on the womb of the mother and she enters the well-protected lying-in chamber called Sutikagriha. Before the actual delivery elaborate precautions are taken. A ceremony called Soshyanti Karma is performed to expedite safe delivery for which some mantras from Yajurveda and Atharvaveda are recited. As soon as the child is delivered a ceremony called medhajanana i.e. generation of the talent , is performed. After cleaning, the midwife hands over the child to the mother. The family priest performs havana, reciting mantras. The father of the child writes Aum on the tongue of the child with a thin golden strip and whispers his secret name in his ear and feeds him with honey, symbolic of strength and intelligence (Sushruta Ibid, XLV) and for a long life of the child he seeks blessings of gods and his ancestors. The father then hands over the child to the mother who gives him her right breast for his milk sucking .

A jar of water is placed by the side of the mother for ten days and every day in the morning and evening havana is performed.

The birth of a child has always been regarded as the fruition of conjugal love and a highly auspicious occasion for the family. To cheer up the mother on this occasion mantras from the Samaveda were sung to the accompaniment of musical instruments, like lute, etc. In modern times ladies congregate and sing songs , called Sohar.

Shashthi: Some ceremonies are performed on the sixth day after the birth of the child. The manuals of Hindu rituals and Smritis i.e. the Hindu law books , do not mention this sacrament. However, some later authorities have prescribed certain rituals to be performed on the 5th or 6th day after the birth. On this day Ganesh and a minor deity called Janmada or Shashthi are worshipped. Sumptuous food is offered to Brahmins. Family members keep vigil through out the might, engaged in singing and other festivities to ward off evil spirits.

The famous Sanskrit poet Banabhatt in his Harshacharita (7th cen. A.D.) has described the ceremonies and festivities connected with the birth of royal princes. According to him, renowned astrologers were consulted to forecast the future of the child on the basis of Janma Nakshatras ( birth constellations) and by observing auspicious marks on the palms and feet of the child.

Bana has mentioned that a figure of Jatamatri, same as Janmadaa Devi was painted on a wall of confinement room of Yoshomati Devi, the mother of Harsha. According to Shankar, the wellknown commentator of Harshacharita she was a cat-faced goddess. In a painting this goddess is shown with young children around her.

Namakarana : It is the ceremony of naming a child after birth. Every human being and even some domestic animals are given some names shortly after birth, maybe within a few minutes or days or weeks afterwards. These names may be permanent or temporary.

Hindus at a very early age had realized the importance of giving a name to a child, so much so that they elevated its bestowal to a solemn religious sacrament. The father of the child whispered the name in the ears of the child on birth and kept it a secret to be shared with his wife, i.e. the mother of the child, which he did amidst the chanting of the Vedic mantras. The formal naming ceremony is performed on the tenth or eleventh or twelfth day after the birth.

No set of principles governing the rules of naming a child can be mentioned at this point of time as they differed from place to place and kept changing from time to time. Different families followed different rules.

According to Sayana, a well known commentator of Vedas, the name should comprise (i) a birth Nakshatra ( constellation) name, (ii) a gupta (secret) name and (iii) a formal name to be announced openly .

There is a clear indication of a secret name in Shatapatha Brahmin (2, 1, 2, and 11). Arjun is the secret name of Indra who is the presiding deity of Phalgun Nakshatra. Arjun, the hero of Mahabharata was born in this constellation, so, he is also called Phalgun.

Some manuals of domestic rituals like Paraskara, Gobhil , Sankhyayana etc. suggest that a name should begin with Su (good, excellent), viz; Sudarshan, Sugriv, Sudev, Sunita, Subhadra etc.

Baudhayana thinks that the child should be named after some god or ancestor. Until about a hundred years ago it was common a practice among the Hindus to name their child after some deity, particularly the family deity. Secularization of names in north India started in Bengal and now it is unusual to name children after deities.

Manu (II, 30 pp) has given some guidelines for naming. He has suggested that the name of a Brahmin should be indicative of auspiciousness, of a Kshatriya strength, might and power of a Vaishya prosperity, wealth, riches and the name of a Shudra should be indicative of willingness to serve. The four varnas should suffix surnames indicative of these traits, viz. Sharma, Varma, Gupta and Das respectively.

Yama, another authority on Dharmashastra recommends that the Brahmin should have the surnames of Dev, the Kshatriya, Varma and Vaishya should have Bhuti or Datt as their title and Das should be the surname of the Shudra.

Some Smritis lay down that the Brahmin should add ‘Swami’ to his names.

But these guidelines were not followed in many cases. Examples of change of surname in the second generation are also found. The founder of the Kadamba dynasty (7th Century A.D.) in South India was a Brahmin named Mayur Sharman. But his successors suffixed Varman to their names which is indicative of a change of profession from priestly to that of the rulers. A similar practice is observed in North India among the non-priestly Brahmins who suffix Rai, Singh, and Sinha to their names. In Andhra Pradesh they add Rao to their names.

Brahmins also suffix their gotra names, viz; Gautam, Vats, Shadilya, Kashyap, Atri etc.

Among the Vaishnava communities’s twelve names of Vishnu, viz. Keshav, Narayan, Madhav, Govind, Vishnu, Trivikram, Vaman, Shridhar, Hrishikesh, Padmanabh and Damodar are popular. They relate to the name of month in which the child was born.

Naming of the Girl: Dharmashastras have recommend that the name of the girl should contain uneven number of syllables ending with a long vowel. It should be easy to pronounce, pleasing to the ears, meaningful, charming and auspicious. (Manu II, 33). Sita, Yashoda, Radha, Sukhada, Lakshmi etc. are common names of girls. Manu also suggests that a girl should never be given an awkward name.

In exceptional cases, viz; on the birth of a son quite belatedly or after several miscarriages, abortions, infantile deaths an awkward or repulsive name is given to the child to frighten the evil spirits likely to cause harm to it .

Naming being one of the most important ceremonies elaborate rites for it have been prescribed. Generally it is celebrated on the 10th, 11th or 12th day after the birth. All the members of the family, relatives and friends gather at the house. The child is given a ceremonial bath and decently clothed. The mother holds the child and sits on the right side of the father and hands over the child to him. The priest performs homa to propitiate the gods.

After the homa the father in consultation with the mother announces the name of the child and blesses him. All the persons present there also bless the child and wish him a long life and prosperity. The occasion is celebrated joyfully and guests are suitably honored and they are served delicious food.

Nishkramana literally means going out. The child after birth remains confined to the four walls of the house for the sake of safety and health. Taking the child out of the house is an important event. The child is thus introduced to the outer world. It has been given religious sanction as the Nishkramana samskar. It is generally performed in the fourth month after the birth on an auspicious day during the bright fortnight of the month (Shukla Paksha). A square properly cleaned is drawn in the courtyard of the house from where the Sun is clearly visible in the morning. A sign of Svastika is made in the middle of the square and grains of rice are scattered over it. The child is brought by the mother to this square and passed on to the father. The child lying flat in the lap of his father with eyes turned towards the sky is made to look at the Sun. Mantras from the Rigveda (III, 26) are whispered in the ear of the child and then the child is given back to the mother with the blessing, may you live for a hundred years (Shatam Jiva Sharadam Vardhamanah).

The significance of this sacrament lies in the recognition of the vital need of the ever growing child to behold the sublime splendor of the universe and adjust itself to its environment outside.

Annaprashana: (eating cooked food) : The sacrament of the first feeding of the child with solid food is called Annaprashana. It is performed primarily to meet the physical needs of the child. Sushruta has noted that the child after six months of the birth needs a small quantity of solid food for its proper growth.

Sankhyayana Grihya Sutra has recommended juice of boiled mutton, partridge or fish as the first food of the child.

Another authority, Ashvalayana Grihya Sutra recommends rice mixed with ghee, honey and curd cooked in a clean utensil as the first food. These items symbolize vigour, prosperity, brilliance and sharpness of the mind.

The father feeds the child uttering Gayatri Mantra. After feeding the child he offers two oblations to goddesses Vak (speech) and Ojas (vigour) and five oblations one each to Prana (breathing in) Apana (breathing out), Chakshu (eyes), Shrotra (ears) and Agni (fire).

This sacrament is an important landmark in the life of the child. Taking solid food is symbolic of the child’s freedom from dependence on the mother for his nourishment. It also emphasizes the need for taking food suitable to his age and also symbolizes the sanctity of food in its limited and wider sense.

Varshavardhan or Abdapurti: It is akin to what is called the birth anniversary. Some of the Grihya Sutras have recommended that the birthday of the child should be celebrated every month during the first year and thereafter once in a year throughout his life.

Vaikhnasa Grihya Sutra (3,20-21) has recommended that the birthday should be celebrated every year. The presiding deity of the nakshatra in which the child is born should be offered oblations in the fire and oblations to the deities of the other nakshatras should follow.

Sahasra Purna Chandra Darshan: After a person attains the age of eighty years he is called Brahma Sharira as by that time he would have seen 1000 full moon days. Detailed rituals have been recommended for this event.

Some authorities have recommended a special worship and offerings to Markandeya (considered immortal) and seven worthies, namely Ashvatthama, Bali, Vyas, Hanuman, Bibhishan, Krip and Parasuram, considered Chirajivini (long lived).

The celebration of marriage anniversaries has also been recommended by the ritual manuals. It is suggested that the couple should eat their favorite dishes on that day.

Chudakarana: It is considered taboo and inauspicious to cut or shave the hair before the performance of Chudakarana or Mundana Samskar. With this sacrament all the impurities caused in the womb of the mother are finally removed.

The objective of this sacrament is to achieve long life and beauty. Sushruta (op cit XXIV, 72) has stated that shaving beard cutting the hair and clipping the nails clean impurities and give harsh (delight) laghav (lightness, ease and freshness), saubhagya (prosperity and good luck), beauty, charm and utsaha vardhan (increase in energy, courage and heroism). Similar views have also been expressed by Chraka, another medical expert.

This sacrament of Chudakarana in modern times is performned in a temple according to the family tradition of the child.

Shikha: The most distinguishing feature of this sacrament is the creation of the hair tuft (shikha or chuda) as the name of the samskar indicates. How much hair and how many bunches of it should be left intact and on which parts of the head are matters on which there is no unanimity among the authorities. According to Baudhayana it should be retained according to the family tradition.

According to Kathaka Grihyasutra (40, 2-8) the Brahmins of the Vasishtha Gotra maintained their shikha on the right side, the Bhargavas on the entire head, Atris and Kashyapas on both sides of the head. But these rules apply to Brahmins only: Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras are required to maintain only one shikha near the top of the head. Now keeping only one Shikha is prevalent among nearly all Hindus.

Significance of Shikha: Vital connection between Shikha and life has been underlined by Sushruta (ibid Ch.VI, 83). This medical authority tells us “Inside the head near the top is the joint of a shira (artery) and a sandhi (critical juncture). There in the eddy of the hair is a vital spot called adhipati (overlord). Any injury to this part causes sudden death. Shikha is meant to protect this vital part of the head.

In the course of time shikha became an outward symbol of Hinduism and its removal was regarded a grave sin. Devala has pronounced that if someone shaved his shikha out of moha (delusion), dvesha (dislike or hatred) or ajnana (ignorance) he must do prayashchitta, penance by drinking hot water one day, milk on the second day and ghee the third day .

The hair of the child is shaved ritually amid the chanting of Vedic mantras. Butter or curd is rubbed on the head of the child and he is given a bath and new clothes, Oblations are offered in the fire and gifts are given to the Brahmins and the child is blessed by the kinsmen and guests. His hair is buried under the ground secretly.

Karnavedha : There are wide differences about the performance of this samskar. Manu does not mention this samskar. Brihaspati has prescribed different dates and months for its performance . According to him it should be performed on the tenth, twelfth or sixteenth day after the birth of the child. If performed on the twelfth day, it would synchronize with the naming ceremony . He has also said that it may be performed in the seventh or tenth month after the birth. However, from Nirukta (II, 4) it seems that Karnavedha has been a fairly ancient practice in India.

In some communities, such as the Agrawals, it is an important Samskar which is performed with great pomp and show. In the fourth year after the birth of the child, the boring of ears is a custom followed almost universally.

Scholars believe that the custom of boring ears had originated in the desire of ornamentation. But later on it was discovered that it was good for health also and therefore in order to emphasize its importance it was given a religious sanction.

Sushruta (ibid, XVI-1) says that the ears of a child should be bored for protection and decoration. He goes a step further and advises boring of the ears to prevent hydrocel and hernia.

Katyayana Grihyasutra (1.2) also recommends boring of the nose besides the ears in the third or fifth year after the birth of the child. Perforation should be by a gold or silver needle. Services of a goldsmith are taken for this purpose. Emphasizing the importance of Karnavedha samskar Devalasmrti, a medieval work, says that all the accumulated merits disappear at the sight of a Brahmin if rays of the sun do not pass through his ear holes.

Boring of the earlobes for insertion of an ornament is very widespread. Sometimes the holes are gradually stretched to carry larger ornaments or to hold big pendants.

Vidyarambha( Starting of Education) It is one of the most important sacraments. Manuals of domestic rituals do not mention any educational activity soon after tonsure at the age of three and before upanayana or initiation at the age of eight. However, in Kautilya’s Arthasastra which is a secular book, in the Chapter (I .5) dealing with the education of the princes it is clearly laid down that “when the ceremony of tonsure (chaula) is performed he (the prince) should learn the use of alphabet (lipi) and arithmetic (sankhya) and when the initiation (upanayana) with the preceptor is performed he should learn the Vedas and philosophy from the learned Brahmins economics (varta) from the Heads of Departments and science of politics (Dandaniti) from its theoretical and practical exponents (Vakta and Prayokta). He should observe celibacy (Brahmacharya) till the completion of sixteen years and make a gift of cows (marking the end of student period) and marry (darakarma), thereafter. Here Kautilya has very briefly referred to the sacrament beginning from the start of education to marriage, and also various components of the education of the princes. But it can be taken as a model for other classes of the society also with some modifications according to their needs.

When the child attained the age of three and his tonsure was performed, it marked the recognition that the child’s mind was now ready to receive education.

Vidyarambha also known as akshararambha and aksharalekhan ( reading and writing) seems to have been included in the list of samskaras from the beginning of the Christian era. Aparaarka (pp 30 -31) has recommended that vidyarambha samskar should be performed when the child is five years old starting from 12th day of the bright fortnight of the month of Kartika to the 11th day of the bright fortnight of the month of Ashadha when the sun is in the northern sphere ( uttarayana) and Lord Vishnu is awake (aprasupte Janaardan). It also recommends that it should be performed on some auspicious day with the worship of Hari (Vishnu), Lakshmi and Sarasvati and oblations to fire.

The teacher (guru) sits in the eastern direction facing the child and holding the fingers of the child makes him write Aum Namah Siddham a phrase used to indicate any auspicious beginning. This ritual with slight variations is still performed in orthodox Hindu families.

Upanayana- Initiation : Upanayana as a sacrament is considered second only to Vivaha (marriage) in importance in the life of a dvija a twice born, three upper caste Hindus. It symbolizes his initiation to the study of the Vedas which means formal education.

Upanayana literally means ‘leading forth, drawing near’. In this sacrament the child is taken ceremoniously to the guru, Acharya for education.

Upanayana marked a turning point in the life of a man . It could be the last samskar for one who chose not to marry and remain celibate throughout his life. Such students were called Naisthika Brahmachari.

Manu (II, 146, 148) maintains that the real father, the progenitor (Janaka) is instrumental for the physical birth, which is crude and associated with animality whereas the Acharya (teacher) provides spiritual birth (Brahma Janma) in which Savitri is the mother and Acharya is the father. This second birth through discipline and learning is considered holy and exalted.

Gurukula: The Rishis of India lived in forests and woods. But a Rishi was not a recluse. He was a householder. Students joined his family (kula) and became members of his extended family. Hence a Rishi was called Kulapati, the head of the family. They lived in perfect harmony with nature. Forest has played very important role in the Hindu way of life.

In the West where the man is face to face with the vast ocean with all its majesty, his natural instinct has been to develop the spirit of adventure and the will to conquer nature. Living in forests and woods, Indian Rishis evolved a philosophy which speaks of fulfillment through harmony with nature, and the first lesson imparted to the child was how to achieve perfect union with nature not only by the love for nature, but also by active communication with it.

The aim of Indian education has been to obtain perfect knowledge. The goal of knowledge was wisdom, not pedantry. “Be natural with nature and human with human society.”

Poet Rabindranath Tagore in his inimitable style has written: “A most wonderful thing we noted in India is that here the forest and not the town is the fountain head of all its civilization. Here the trees and plants, rivers and lakes had ample opportunity to live in close relationship with man. In these forests, though there was human society, there was enough of open space of aloofness Still this aloofness did not provide inertia in human mind rather it made it all the brighter. The current of civilization that flowed from its forests inundated the whole of India (quoted by R.K. Mookerji in Ancient Indian Education. p. XXXV).

Apart from the influence of environment the real creative force in Indian system of education came from the teacher, the guru. His home was the school, there was no separate classroom, nor the furniture of any sort. Learning continued all the time between the teacher and the taught. The guru was the walking library and the single source of knowledge.

Qualifications of the Teacher: The main object of the upanayana was acquisition of knowledge. The teacher and the pupil used to sit under the shade of some tree and the teacher held his class there. Thus the school was a natural formation, not an artificially created institution. There was no state interference. No fees were paid or charged for building up an all-round character. Hence emphasis has been laid on right choice of the teacher. Initiation from an ignorant person would be disastrous. Manu (II. 118) says that a person of good character with a smattering of Vedic knowledge (Savitri matra saropi) is preferable to a scholar who though well versed in the Vedas is impure in life, thought and habits (ayantrita). Long lists of the qualities required for a teacher have been given in Hindu shastras.

“Therefore one should desire for a Guru who comes from a good family (Kulina) , is learned and practises self-control” (Shaunaka p. 408). Harita (p. 409) makes a similar recommendation, “A Brahmin who is well read (bahu shruta) of good family, and purified by practicing penances should initiate a child.” He should be truthful, talented, capable, merciful towards all creatures, faithful and given to studies.

Upanayana for quite some time had been restricted to the Brahmin caste and now in most of the families this sacrament is not performed. However, the Smrtis (Hindu law books) recommend initiation for the three upper castes viz. Brahmin, Kshatriya and Vaishya, who are called dvija (the twice-born classes). But there is enough evidence to show that during the Vedic age upanayana of the Shudras was also performed. We know the story of Satyakama Jabala who was the son of a female slave of unknown father. He went to the famous teacher, Gautam and requested him to be his teacher. Gautam asked his Gotra. The boy in reply said to him that his mother Jabala had told him that in her youth she used to serve many men and so she did not know who his real father was. The teacher impressed with the brilliance and truthfulness of the child took him under his care and taught him like any other student. Satyakama became a great Rishi himself and a famous teacher. He was the founder of a school of Vedic teachers called Jabalayana.

It may be mentioned that the rules of admission in those days were not so simple that a boy went to the teacher and the teacher immediately admitted him as his pupil. Admission was not open to all . The teacher allowed a boy to be his student as an antevassi (a student who lived in the house of the teacher as a member of his family) after fully satisfying himself about the character of the pupil. Taittiriya Upanishad clearly says “this knowledge should not be given to a skeptic, a wicked and to the vicious .”

Age of Upanayana: As regards the age of the boy at the time of this sacrament, it was based on the social background and professional requirements of the pupil. Ashvalayana (I.19.1-6), Paraskara (II.5.36.38) and Gobhila (II, 10, 1-4) recommend that the Brahmin, Kshatriya and Vaisya pupils should be imitated (upanayet) at the age of eight, eleven and twelve respectively. However, in the case of promising pupils it could be preponed even to the age of five, six and eight respectively.

Paraskara (II.2, 1-4), however laid down that the upanayana could be performed at any time considered auspicious by the family.

The views of Manu (II.37) regarding this matter are noteworthy. He says, “the initiation of a Brahmin desirous of proficiency in sacred lore (Brahma varchas) should be performed in the fifth year, that of a Kshatriya (Rajan) desirous of strength and power (bala) in the sixth year and that of a Vaishya, desirous of success in business (artha), in the eighth year.

Some modern scholars, such as S.K. Das (Educational System of the Hindus, p-72) think that “the difference in age was to emphasize the supposed intellectual superiority of the Brahmin who was thus to begin the study at a younger age than his non Brahmin fellows”. But such views do not seem to be correct. The difference is largely due to the nature of the duties to be performed by each caste. The Brahmin was to learn and teach the Vedas, perform sacrifices, some of which were so elaborate that they lasted for several years. The earlier he started the better it was so as to help him to become the master of such knowledge. In the case of Kshtriyas and Vaishya it was a different matter. They were not required to specialize in the knowledge of the Vedas and act as priests or teachers. Their professional requirements did not suffer if they started their education a couple of years later and were grown up enough to pick up the tricks of their professions besides learning the essentials of the Vedic lore. It was quite natural to expect a Brahmin child to have a hereditary trait to develop tendencies to master the Vedas, owing to his family and social background earlier than the Kshatriyas and Vaishyas. It was not due to any fancy or conceit of the Brahmins as these scholars have tried to argue. The difference in age for the start of education was due professional requirement of the three castes.

Another and perhaps more plausible reason seems to be that a Brahmin child had his early and in some cases complete education from his father or uncle at his home. It would not be out of place to point out a fact relating to the education of a Brahmin. As we know, every Brahmin has a Gotra and three or five Pravaras, Gotra is the name of the Rishi or forefather from whom all the Brahmins belonging to his Gotra have descended. The Pravaras are the Rishis under whom the Brahmin studied one or more Vedas. Thus the Bharadvaj Brahmins have three Pravaras, Angirasa, Barhaspatya and Bharadvaja. Same is the case of some Gautam Brahmins who have also three Pravaras – Angirasa, Autathya and Gautam, while some Bhargavs have five Pravaras, Bhargava, Chyavana, Aptavana, Aurva and Jamadagnya. It will be seen that in all the cases the name of the Gotra Rishi invariably occurs among the Pravaras which clearly indicates that the Brahmin boys received their education at home at an early age by their grandfather, father or uncles. Early initiation suited them, while in the case of non-Brahmin children they were required to go to the teacher, away from home, taking leave of their parents, for their Vedic education. Thus, it was for the practical and sentimental reasons and parental love that delayed their initiation for a couple of years or more. It was not because of any fancy or conceit that the Brahmins thought themselves superior to the Kshatriyas and Vaishyas whose boys were required to devote their time to acquiring the games of military skills or an elementary knowledge of agriculture and commerce in their families.

The upper age limit for the performance of the upanayana sacrament of Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas has been fixed at sixteen, twenty and twenty-four respectively. To avail of any age relaxation they were required to make atonement (Prayashchitta) prescribed for the purpose.

But after the expiry of this grace period an uninitiated twice-born was declared a Vratya – an outcaste, a discarded person unfit for any social interaction. (Manu II, 39, Yajna I. 37-38). However, they were made eligible for readmission in the community after performing a special ritual called Vratya Stoma sacrifice. Penalty of ex-communication must have acted as a powerful deterrent to the guardians of boys to deny their children primary education . This shows that the Hindus attached great importance to education in the past . It was because of such measures that the literacy rate in ancient India was quite high. Needless to add that education was free and the students were not required to pay for their boarding and lodging throughout the period of their education.

Academic session: The bright half of the month was considered auspicious. The choice of the month for the initiation also differed. Keeping in view the general temperament and professional requirements of the castes , it has been laid down (Baudhayana II, 5.6) that the upanayana of a Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and a Rathakara ( chariot maker ) should be performed during the Vasanta (spring), Grishma (summer), Sharat (autumn) and Varsharitu (rainy season) respectively. Inclusion of the Rathakara an artisan for initiation shows that at the time of Baudhayana (C 600-300 B.C.) an artisan like Rathakara who was listed as a Shudra in the Hindu law books, was not debarred from receiving Vedic education.

The choice of seasons appears to have been made keeping in view the natural temperament of the castes. Brahmins by nature are calm and cool. The moderation of spring symbolizes their moderate nature. Neither cold season of autumn or hot like mid-summer befits the initiation of a Brahmin. The heat of the summer is matched by the hot temperament of a Kshatriya. The Vaishya is pliable like two months of Sharat when the commercial life of ancient India restarted after the rainy season. Sharat is suggestive of wealth and prosperity of the Vaishyas. Any time during the rainy season – varsha suits the convenience of the artisan classes.

Upanayana which denotes initiation to the study of the Vedas, has lost its relevance in modern times. In the case of Kshatriya and Vaishya boys it was totally neglected in the medieval period when the Muslims ruled the country. It was revived to some extent by the Arya Samaj movement led by Swami Dayananda.

As regards the Brahmins, the sacrament continued to be performed even during that period and much after that during the British period. The onslaught of Western culture has reduced the sacrament to the skeleton of a meaningless ritual. Excepting some orthodox families of Brahmins, it is rarely performed by other Brahmins of North India. However, the Brahmins of South India, particularly the Tamilians who are conservative by nature have maintained the ancient tradition to a large extent.

Paraskara Grihya Sutra is the principal authority in all matters relating to Hindu sacraments. The procedure laid down in this manual is followed in all domestic rites and sacraments throughout India. The upanayana ceremony as originally conceived had a purely educational purpose. It was a sacrament of a person desirous of education (Vidyarthasya). But in course of time the ritual became the main object and education became secondary. The ceremony as it is performed today is only a shadow of the original. Its veneer is devoid of real spirit.

Now it is known as the Yajnopavita samskar, which was incidental though most important, constituent of the upanayana.

A canopy is set up outside the house of an would-be pupil. Many Pauranic rituals, viz; Samkalpa, Ganesh Pujan etc. are performed before the young boy is invested with the yajnopavita, the triple cord which he is required to wear throughout his life from that time. He is called Brahmachari or Batuka (Barua in Hindi). Admission of the pupil to the care of the teacher is considered a very solemn affair. The ceremony lasts for three days. On the first night the candidate is smeared with turmeric paste, his hair is nicely combed, shikha is tied with small silver rings and the eye lids are delicately penciled to enhance the brilliance of the eyes and it is also a pleasing addition to the handsome face and body of the child. Folk songs suited to the occasion are sung by the ladies.

Next morning the boy comes under the canopy with his mother and father and is seated in the centre. Women perform his arti and puja is offered to family deities. In past ages boy took his last meal with his mother, which marked the end of the irregular life of the child and reminded him that he was no longer an irresponsible child and that henceforth he must live a systematic disciplined life.

However, the taking of the last meal with the mother in good old days must have been a sad sentimental ceremony, expressing deeper affection of the mother for the boy. The very idea that the boy is leaving her for a long period at so tender an age and that he would no more take his food with her, must have moved her to shower her most affectionate feelings on him.

The ritual manual prescribes that a feast should be given to three or more Brahmin boys on this occasion. It is remnant of an ancient practice when boys in groups accompanying caravans of traders (sarthas) went to gurukulas located at distant places.

On the third day the boy’s head is shaved and he is given a purificatory bath. It symbolizes the purification of the body and mind before he starts his life of Brahmacharya (studentship) which was regarded as a prolonged sacrifice( dirgha satra).

The boy is then given a Kaupina (a narrow strip of cloth) to cover his private parts. It is as small as is in accord with the accepted standards of social morality and his personal dignity. He is then taken to the Acharya by his father who announces that his son desires to be his Brahmachari.

The teacher takes him to the newly kindled fire for his personal interview. Having satisfied himself and accepted his request, the teacher gives him clothes to wear, reciting appropriate mantras: “I put this garment on you for the sake of a long life, strength and splendor, as Brihaspati, the teacher of the gods, put the garment of immortality on Indra”. This is followed by achaman – sipping of purificatory water.

Mekhalabandhana i.e. the tying of the girdle. In the first instance the young pupil is required to make atonement for any sin committed by him so far out of his youthful folly or ignorance. The Acharya then ties a girdle round the waist of the student reciting a Veda mantra. He also gives him a danda (staff) and upper garment (uttariya).

The girdle was originally meant to support the loin cloth. However , in course of time the upanayana, a purely educational act was transformed into a symbol of moral purity, austerity and reminder of onerous duties as a student. It also symbolized the cord which bound him to the sacred lore and his guru who taught him the Vedas was now his spiritual father. Elaborate rules regarding the material of which it should be made were laid down. Manu (II, 42-48) says: “The girdle of the Brahmin should consist of munja grass, smooth and soft (slakshna) that of a Kshatriya of a bow string made of muva fiber, that of a Vaishya of hemp thread. However another authority, Baudhayana (II, 5, 13) says that the girdle of the three castes may be made of munja grass.

Yajnopavita :The sacred threads : After the teacher tied the girdle round the waist of the student, comes the most important ceremony called Yajnopavita i.e. the investiture of sacred threads. The word Yajnopavita has two parts, viz. yajna (sacrifice), a religious ceremony and upavita (a dress). Hence Yajnopavita means the dress put on during the performance of sacred ceremonies.

A Hindu like any other national is also required to purify himself and put on proper dress while performing any religious ceremony. The dress of a Hindu for such an occasion consists of two pieces to cover the lower and upper parts of the body, i.e. adhovastra and uttariya. The upanayana sacrament marked the beginning of a student’s religious life. Therefore, a dress, particularly the upper garment, put on the occasion was called Yajnopavita.

From the Taittiriya Aranyaka (II. 1) we learn that the uttariya , the upper garment consisted of the black deer skin. The skin was considered a symbol of spiritual and intellectual preeminence. Later on when the use of cotton became common, the deer skin was replaced by cotton garments and still later by silk garments. Silk is considered purer than the cotton. But silk like deer skin became costly and out of reach of the common man. Hence the yajnopavita was reduced to a mere symbolic equipment, consisting of three pieces of cotton thread. Wearing the Yajnopavita indicates that the life of a twice born is a continuous sacrifice necessitated by his socio-religious duties.

The rules for the manufacture of Yajnopavita- sacredthreads have been laid down. The cotton with which it is made must be gathered from the plant by the hands of a Brahmin and it should be carded and spun by Brahmin virgin girls. It should consist of three threads and each thread should have nine strands well spun and smoothened. It should have as many knots as the number of Pravaras of the wearer. Its length should be ninety six times the breadth of the four fingers (called Chauva in Hindi) of a man which is equal to the height of a man.

The composition of the sacred threads has deep symbolism and significance. The three threads represent three principal Hindu divinities Brahma, Vishnu and Shiv, having powers of creation, protection and destruction respectively. According to some authorities it symbolizes the body, speech and mind to have control over them. When the knots are tied, it is presumed that the man wearing it meant to achieve that objective. If not, at least it reminds him of this golden principle of ethics.

After the teacher has tied the girdle rounds the waist of the pupil, the Acharya recites the mantra in which the student prays to gods to purify him of all the sins he might have committed knowingly or unknowingly out of his youthful ignorance.

The guru offers Yajnopavita the sacred thread and the student acknowledges the gift with the famous mantra – Yajnopavitam paramam pavitram. “This Yajnopavita has come with Brahma, the God of creation. Hence it is very holy. I tie it for strength, long life and illumination” Raising his right arm the boy wears it on the left shoulder, all the time looking towards the Sun. A Brahmachari is required to put on only one set of three cords. After his marriage he could wear two sets one for himself and the other for his wife because in course of time women were debarred from participating in the Vedic sacrifices and recite Veda mantras. But as no sacrifice could be performed by the husband alone, he deputizes for his wife also. Hence he wears two sets of Yajnopavita after marriage.

Method of wearing Yajnopavita : The sacred thread is normally put on the left shoulder and it hangs below the right arm. It is the upaviti method of wearing the sacred thread. It is absolutely necessary to wear the sacred thread in upaviti way while engaged in any religious ceremony. However, at the time of offering pinda – oblations to the ancestors it should hang from the right shoulder and below to the left arm. This is called prachinaviti and while engaged in offering libation (tarpana) to the Rishis or doing any unclean work the rules require that Yajnopavita should hang round the neck. This is called Nivita.

The Brahmachari was also given an ajina or deer skin, by the teacher for his use.

Danda: Next the Acharya gives a danda (staff) to the pupil. Manu (II, 45) lays down that the danda of the Brahmin should be made of Palasa or Bilva, of the Kshatriya of Nyagrodh, (Vata) and of the Vaisya of Udmbara (gular). The difference in the wood of the stuff was indicative of the standard of Vedic education of the student.

The skin and staff (ajina and danda) are symbolic of austere and disciplined life of the ascetic. The staff was the symbol of a traveller and while accepting the staff the student prayed that he may reach the end of his long and arduous journey of Brahmacharya safely.The staff, according to some authorities, was the symbol of watchfulness.The purpose of the staff seems to be self-protection. It also helped the student to keep the cattle of the teacher under control and provided him valuable help in crossing rivers. Thus the student was fully equipped with necessities of a student life in ancient India.

Suryadarshana : The teacher asks the pupil to look at the Sun. The Sun represents the cosmic law governing the universe. The student is expected to learn from the Sun observance of unswerving devotion to duty and the need for constant exertion and watchfulness. The Sun is a witness of all actions. He is the Lord of all vows, time, action and virtues. Therefore he should be properly gratified.

Hridayasparsha: The Acharya touches the heart of his pupil saying: “May your pure heart always hold me dear’ and then he prays silently. I place your heart in my direction, your mind will follow mine. In my words you will rejoice. May Brihaspati unite your heart with mine. You are my Brahmachari.”

This mantra is also recited at the time of the marriage by the husband with slight variations. Instead of Brihaspati god Prajapati is invoked in the marriage ceremony.

In this mantra Brihaspati, the god of learning, has been requested to unite the hearts of the Acharya and the student, emphasizing the sacred and intimate relationship between the two. It helped in creating mental and emotional communion between them from the very start of the relationship. Complete harmony between the guru (teacher) and the shishya (pupil) ensured smooth progress of education.

The Acharya holding his hand moves in all the four directions beginning from the East and commends him to the protection of the omnipotent and all powerful gods, the Prajapati (Brahma) Savita (Sun), Adbhi, Aushadhis (water and plants) Dyava-prithvi (gods of heaven and earth) and Bhootas , the god of all the beings. All these gods are invoked to guard him everywhere and all the time. “To all the beings I give you in charge for the sake of freedom from harm”. (Paraskara II.2).

The First command: The Acharya asks the pupil to circumambulate the fire and make offerings to it. Then he gives his first commands to him. “You are a celibate now. Perform achamana. Do not sleep in the day. You should keep your speech under control, Pay full attention to your studies and follow rules of discipline. You should bring fire-wood for offering oblations in the fire regularly”. These instructions are most practical suggestions and full of symbolic meaning.

The student listened to the meaningful command of the teacher with rapt attention and expressed acquiescence with them. He touched his feet with full reverence, right foot with fingers of his right and left foot with the fingers of his left hand.

The Acharya and the student now sit facing each other. The Acharya then teaches the most sacred Gayatri mantra to him with Pranava (Aum) and Vyahritis (Bhuh, Bhuvah, Svah) .

The Gayatri Mantra is as follows:

Tatsaviturvarenyam bhargo devasya dhimahi dhiyo yo nah prachodayat.

(Let us meditate on most excellent light of Savita, the creator. May he stimulate our intellect.)

This mantra is in Gayatri metre and Vishamitra is its Rishi (to whom it was revealed or who composed it). It is addressed to Savita, the Sun god.

This sacred mantra is symbolic of the second birth of the pupil in which Acharya was his father and Savitri the mother. With this the student becomes dvija.

Aum is a very sacred syllable. It symbolizes God Almighty. According to Taittirya Upanishad (1.8) Aum is Brahma. It is all in all. By uttering Aum one attempts to approach Brahma. Aum is the gateway to heaven. According to Manu (II. 74) the letters of Aum, Viz; A, U and M and three Vyahritis, viz, Bhuh, Bhuvah and Svah have been called from the three Vedas, viz; the Rigveda, Yajurveda and Samaveda by Bahma. These letters represent Vishnu, Lakshmi and Jiva while in the opinion of Kathopanishad (12, 15-17) Aum is Vedanta, the end of the Vedas. It is the origin of Brahma and also symbolizes Brahma.

As regards Gayatri it is a very simple prayer, particularly apt to a student who has embarked on his long and arduous journey of learning requiring stimulation to develop his mind all the time.

Samidhadhana After receiving Gayatri mantra from his Acharya, the pupil performs the rite called Samidhadana i.e. kindling the fire. Having sprinkled water around the fire reciting a prayer to god Agni for his long and prosperous life the student prays:

“May my teacher be blessed with many living sons. May I be capable of insight, not forgetful of what I have learnt. May I increase in honour and splendor of holy lustre and may I enjoy my food.”


Agni the sacred fire symbolizes life and insight, warmth, austerity, exertion and above all, brilliance. The purpose of this mantra is to impress upon the newly initiated student, the need to make all efforts to acquire all these qualities. He is now required to offer oblations to Agni at least twice, once in the morning and again in the evening (Sandhya), daily and never allow it to be extinguished.

The student warms his hands with the fire and puts them to his face with the prayer to god Agni When the Hindus after performing Havana and arti warm their hands and put them on to their faces, they do so to obtain blessings for long life, vigour and wisdom from God Agni.


Bhikshatana: Collecting Alms – The last part of the unpanayana sacrament consists of going a round for collecting alms. All students, irrespective of their social status, were required to collect alms from willing householders. This made them humble and reminded them of their dependence and indebtedness to the society and their duty to discharge it when they became earning members of the society.

A neo-Brahmachari first of all goes to his mother, sister, aunt, etc.

The begging of alms was a universal and common practice in ancient times. But it was not meant for personal needs. Whatever was collected by way of alms by a student was offered by him to the wife of his guru who kept part of it and returned the rest, sufficient for the student . It shows that the students in those days cooked their own meals. But this must have been the case with the grown-up students only. As regards the younger ones, they must have handed over the entire collection to the guru and took then their food with his family.

Collecting alms had been the primary source of financing education in ancient India for quite a long period. Later on the learned Brahmins were granted land where they settled and supported themselves and their students from the income of the land and the village. These villages were called Agraharams.


Education in India had always been free from state control.

Begging alms being a universal and common practice in ancient India, no stigma was attached to it. Ordinarily, no family refused to give alms to students. It was considered a sacred duty to give alms willingly to students, and refusing to do so was considered a great sin that could neutralize the merits of all good deeds done by a person in this life and also in the previous life. However, this practice fell into disuse after some time, and now a farcical comedy is enacted at the time of Yajnopavita of the Brahmin boys which depicts the ceremonial begging. The student makes a mimic performance as if he is going to Kashi on his educational mission. But he is persuaded to abandon the idea by his maternal uncle or any other relation by the allurement of finding a suitable bride for him.

Whatever be the case, even the worst critics of Hinduism have been obliged to confess that “assuredly no other nation in the world has preserved so completely the minutest details of its ancient customs.”

After the initiation when a Brahmin has been invested with the Yajnopavita he is expected to wear it throughout his life. If any of the three cords is snapped, the entire sacred thread is replaced by a new one. The wearer of the sacred thread is required to take care of it and keep it clean and tidy. Wearing a used Yajnopavita is not permitted on any occasion.

Upakarma or Shravani: In a special ceremony called upakarma or shravani in common parlance on full moon day of the month of Ashadha (August) the Brahmins assemble on the bank of a river or a big tank and the sacred cords are ceremoniously changed. It is done with great solemnity. The performance of this periodical duty grants the wearer of the sacred thread remission of all the sins committed during the preceding year.

In the opinion of some scholars upakarma marked the commencement of a new academic session of the Vedic studies.

Gurukulavasa: Residence of the pupil in the house of the teacher was a unique feature of ancient Hindu system of education.

Hindu sages have prescribed rules for a student to lead a regulated life which aimed at all-round development of his personality. The system of gurukulavasa which insisted on the pupil living for a considerable period, on an average for twelve years in close companionship of the teacher up to the age of twenty five years as a member of his family, indicates the important role that the teacher played in the personality formation of the pupil. The serene atmosphere of the forests where the gurukulas were ordinarily located, provided full opportunity for the interplay of the minds of the teacher and the taught. The teacher being in intimate relationship with the pupil besides teaching and formally transmitting information also imparted him worldly knowledge and wisdom. In the words of Dr. S. Radhakrishnan (Aims and objects of university education, Government of India Report p.3) “We cannot be wise without some basis of knowledge though we may easily acquire knowledge and remain devoid of wisdom”.

Rules of Etiquette: Hindu seers believed in the combination of good character and good manners. The teacher setting the example by his own conduct impressed upon his pupil to follow the rules of etiquette and good and proper behavior (read good manners) towards his superiors (gurujanas), equals and juniors. The rules of purity and commendable behavior , followed equally by the teacher and the taught, paved the way for the pupil for leading a practical and moral life in the future. The student in the Gurukula imbibed the qualities of gentleness and truthfulness which sustained him throughout his life.

He was required to rise early in the morning before sunrise, attend to the call of nature, clean his teeth and take a bath in the running water. Having bathed and purified himself , he should offer libations of water (tarpana) to gods, Rishis and his ancestors, worship the idols of gods and place fuel in the sacred fire.

He was required to abstain from telling lies, eating honey, meat, garlic and onion, using perfumes, garlands, flowers, taking midday siesta, massaging the body with oil, consuming substances converted to alkali by distillation, causing injury to living creatures, anointing the body, looking at the mirror and combing the hair. Ordinarily the student maintained a Jata and beard or shaved the head and beard and moustache periodically. He was not expected to apply collyrium to his eyes and look at women or mix with them. He should not fall victim to sensual desires and covetousness. He was not expected to sleep on a cot even if made of wood. He should go out without shoes or an umbrella. He should not use any conveyance, palanquin or bullock cart.

He should not laugh loudly. If he could not suppress the laughter, he should shut his mouth with his hands.

If an elderly person, particularly the guru approaches him, he should instantaneously stand up and salute him with folded hands (it is called abhivadana) touch his feet, right foot with the right hand and left foot with the left hand.

He must not touch the feet of young wife of his guru, instead he should prostate before her.

The above rules of etiquette also required that one should not speak while eating and he should eat the food considering it as the gift of gods.(Prasad)

It seems that the model rules laid down by the seers were illustrative rather than exhaustive. Expecting the students to sleep on the ground was not practicable in cold climatic conditions. Similarly, they could also take non-vegetarian food in similar climatic conditions.

It seems that some fickle-minded students were in the habit of changing their teachers frequently. They were derogatorily called. Tirthakak, crows at a sacred bathing place and they were looked down upon.

Samavartana: Returning Home- After the completion of education , a sacrament called Samavartana samskar was performed. It marked the end of the student life and the period of Brahmacharya.

From the Upanishads we learn that the period of student life (Brahmacharya) was of twelve years. After the completion of this period , students ordinarily went back to their home, Some authorities like Paraskara (II.5) maintain that the period of Brahmacharya extended to 48 years, twelve years for learning each Veda. Thus if the upanayana was performed at the age of, say, 12 years, the Brahmachari would return home at the ripe age of sixty years when his hair must have turned gray. It would have been difficult for him to get a bride at that age. Possibly, some students remained life long celibates (Naishthika Brahmachari) who did not marry to enter the grihastha ashram, the second stage in the scheme of Hindu life. Analysing authorities on this subject we can safely say that the Vedic students left their gurukulas after three to twelve years with the permission of the guru.

In ancient India the pupil was not required to pay any fee to the teacher during the course of his studies. However, at the time of his final departure from the gurukul, the propriety demanded that the guru be paid something as gurudakshina (the teacher’s fees) the amount of which depended on the capacity of the student. He could pay it in the form of land, gold, cow, horse, umbrella, shoes, clothes, fruit and vegetables. According to Vyas only cows should be given as gurudakshina. But the common belief was that “there is no object on this earth which is enough to free a student from the debt of a guru who had taught him even a single letter. If one was not in a position to pay anything by way of gurudakshina, it was mandatory on his part to go to the teacher, touch his feet and seek his permission to leave. In such cases, the teacher was obliged to say “My child, enough with money. I am fully satisfied with your merits. God bless you”.

The most important ceremony relating to this sacrament was snana – the ritual bath. Manu (III.4) lays down that after taking permission and having bathed a dvija should return from the house of the Acharya, marry a girl of his own varna in accordance with the rules (yathaavidhi). Thus samavartana was a passport to marriage. But after taking permission from the teacher and before his departure the student had to take a ceremonial bath (snaana). As Brahmacharya was a long sacrifice (dirgha satra) and at the end of every sacrifice a sacrificial bath or avabhrita was necessary. So the student also had to undergo the snaana at the end of a long period of Brahmacharya, and after having taken the ritual bath he was qualified to be called Snataka which was a designation of great respect. In the Indian tradition learning (vidya shastra) has been compared to a great ocean. One who possessed great learning (Veda) was understood to have crossed this ocean of knowledge (Veda paraga) and became a vidya snataka. In this way the ritual bath symbolized the crossing of the ocean of learning by the student.

Before taking the bath the student offered oblations in the sacrificial fire.

Eight earthen vessels full of water are kept there. The Brahmachari draws water from each of the eight vessels in a lota (copper pot) and pours over his head reciting mantras.

The prayer during the bath, unlike that of the upanayana (initiation) sacrament which contained a significant note of austerity and abstention, is full of joy and rejoicing now.

After the bath the student casts aside his austere garb of munja grass, deer skin, and staff of palasa wood. He cuts his jata, gets his beard shaved, cuts his nails, cleans his teeth with a fresh gular twig and then gets his body smeared with sandle paste to remove the dirt and then again takes a bath. Now he puts on a new garment of two pieces – one Adhovastra, lower garment and the other Uttariya, the upper garment. He takes some fragrant flowers and puts them on his head.

The young man had practiced continence for a long period as a Brahmachari. Now , with the ceremonial bath, the period of his austerity is over and he could enjoy reasonable comforts and luxuries of life as a Nagaraka – the gentleman citizen. All these luxuries would be available to him hereafter.

He wears on a necklace and earrings, applies collyrium to his eyes, takes an umbrella, wears a pair of shoes, holds a bamboo stick applies sandle powder and fragrant ointment to his body and winds a turban round his head reciting appropriate mantras.

Thus equipped the Brahmachari presents himself before his Acharya who offers him Madhuparka (honey and curd), indicating great respect, for it was reserved for few honored guests, viz; a king, a teacher, a son–in-law and a Snataka. He was now a snataka.

Last Sermon: The Acharya then delivers his last sermon to his disciple which is very meaningful which the Brahmachari as a householder was enjoined to follow in his life. It is found in Taittiriya Upanisad (Shikshavalli I) and is considered the best convocation address ever delivered . It has been adopted in most of the Indian universities and now in some American and other universities elsewhere too.

After completing the teaching of the Veda, the Acharya gives his last command to his antevasi, i.e. the student who lived in his house, at the time of his departure:

“Always speak the truth. Conduct yourself in accordance with Dharma. Do not neglect studies. Do not snap the line of your race. Never be careless in observing truth. Never be careless in observing your dharma. Never be careless in perusing your good. Never be careless in pursuing your fortunes. Do not neglect your duty towards studies and teaching. Do not neglect your duty towards the Gods and your ancestors. Treat your mother as a goddess. Treat your father as a god. Treat your teacher as a god. Treat your guests as gods.”

“Follow our blameless deeds only, not others (blameworthy deeds) You should offer proper seats near you and honour those Brahmins who are superior to you. Give with faith. Give even without faith. Give if you are rich. Give even if you are not rich. Give as per contract.”

“If some doubt arises in your mind regarding some act or conduct and if you are not able to decide whether any action or conduct is approved by moral code of Dharmashastras or is in consonance with popular usage, you should follow the conduct of the Brahmins in your vicinity who are good counsellors, who are not harsh, who are virtuous, you should act as they act in similar circumstances.

“This is my advice. This is my instruction. This is Veda. This is Upanishad. This is my direction. This ought to be done. You should conduct in this manner.”