VARNASHRAM DHARMA
VARNASHRAM DHARMA
In ancient India the ruler was required to protect the social order founded on the system of Varna and Ashrama. He was asked to ensure that every individual performed duties of his Varna and Ashrama as laid down in the Vedas. This kind of social order was regarded most sacrosanct and immutable as it had the sanction of the Vedas which are considered divine creations. In this situation one may be tempted to assume that Vedic religion was the state religion and that the Hindu state was a theocracy. But such an assumption is unwarranted as there never has been an organized theological body to intervene in the affairs of the Hindu state to enforce religious sanctions.
Indian culture as against the western concept of culture proceeded from the initial fervor of one’s ‘duty’ in which lies the guarantee of his ‘right’ while it is the revere case in the west. In the words of Manu, “He who persists in discharging his duties in the right manner obtains even in this world, fulfillment of all desires he may have cherished and reaches deathless state (in life beyond).”
Let us know what is Varna? Varna is generally translated as ‘caste’ which is also used to denote ‘Jati’. But Varna and Jati in the Indian context have two different connotations. Whereas Varna, denotes class. ‘Jati’ means a community. Hindu philosophers had the psychological insight to realize that human beings have a variegated nature, capacities and potentials, for development, Diversities in nature and temperaments of men are reflected in the planning of Hindu social organization.
The Varna classification of Hindu society is based on division of human beings in four distinct categories. Each category comprises individuals with similar qualities. This classification represents not exclusive but dominant characteristics of individuals. Aptitude of individuals for certain type of work was the sole criterion of classification.
In this classification society is divided into four varnas viz; Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra, each entrusted with specific duties, keeping in view the general make-up of their mind (guna) and aptitude for doing the work (Karma) assigned to it. This classification aims at creation of maximum efficiency, progress, harmony and ultimately the welfare of the society as a whole, each class strives to achieve maximum efficiency in discharging its duties without encroaching on the specific duties of other classes. Each class has been considered the best in its field capable of attaining the highest perfection in discharging its duties (dharma) to the best of its abilities.
Duties of Varnas: Kautilya, the famous socio-political thinker of India has described the duties of four varnas as follows:-
“The duties of the Brahmins are – studying (adhyayanam), teaching (adhyapanam), performing sacrifices for self (yajanam) officiating as priests to other people (yajanam) making gifts (Dana) and receiving gifts (pratigraha).
The duties of the Kshatriyas are – studying, performing sacrifices for self, making gifts living by the profession of arms (shastrajiva) protecting beings. (Bhootarakshanam).
The duties of the Vaishyas are studying, performing sacrifices for self, making gifts, agriculture (Krishi), cattle rearing (pashupaalanam) and trade (vanijya).
The duties of the Shudras are – service of the twice born (dvijas), engaging in an economic calling, viz, agriculture, cattle rearing and trade varta) and acting, dancing etc. (Kushilava).
A Brahmin in this scheme of classification represents the intellectual class of the society, but he was not expected to be a mere intellectual to know about ideas, without corresponding humility about his knowledge. It was a part of his duty to share his knowledge with others willingly. It may be underlined here that this is the picture of an ideal society as conceived by the Hindu Philosophers. A true Brahmin is expected to be above class feelings and prejudices, possessing serenity, self restraint, austerity and belief in God. These are the attributes of Brahmin – ‘One who has forsaken wrath and infatuation , though himself injured never injures others, he always speaks the truth and ready to serve the elders, is devoted to studies and pure in mind, free from lust and anger. Such person is a true Brahmin(Gita XVIII,42)’ ‘The high minded man, who loves all people as his own self, knows what is right and applies himself to all righteous acts, is a true Brahmin. Possession of all these qualities makes the Brahmin possesses an abiding sense of humility’. (Gita V.25)
In the Varna system the Brahmin has been visualized as capable of providing moral guidance and leadership to the society. As he is not in pursuit of power and wealth, the Hindu philosophers were wise enough to place the selfless intellectual at the top of the society- subordinating the military to the spiritual authority. The military authority with its natural aggressiveness is quite capable of playing havoc with the whole society. In varna system the Brahmin is visualized to bear the responsibility of restraining martial elements and thus protecting the society from becoming the victim of their excesses. It would thus be seen that the Varna system aimed at protecting and safeguarding the interest of the society as a whole.
Power corrupts and absolute power corrupts absolutely. Hindu philosophers were aware of this universal truth of human nature. Hence they considered fit to make an arrangement that one immediately concerned with the exercise of power should be kept under restraint to abuse his power. The type of Brahmin described above was considered as the ideal class capable of guarding and safeguarding legitimate interests of the society.
According to the blue print of Varna system the Brahmin is supposed to lay down the ideals of the society in accordance with the Dharma in order to maintain high standard of morality. The Kshatriyas have been assigned the task of implementing those ideals. The application of the principles of Dharma involves responsibility of protecting the people, preventing social disharmony and punishing offenders. A true Kshatriya has been portrayed as possessing heroic determination to secure the safety of society. He is fearless and courageous. His dynamic spirit is accountable for his fearlessness even while facing imminent death.
The Kshatriya as the military and ruling class represents the political aspect of the society. The duties of a Kshatriya and a king are almost identical, for the King was generally a Kshatriya. As a ruler he was charged with the responsibility of creating conditions in the society conducive to the peaceful pursuit of various vocations without any let or hindrance or interference from any quarter.
Protection means primarily protection of the person and property of the citizens from antisocial elements. To discharge his responsibilities he has of necessity to meet out punishment and use of force(danda) in order to deliver justice and maintain peace and order. The Brahmin laid down policy (Niti) and the Kshatriya implemented it. Meeting out punishment (danda) is not doing violence. It needs to be used only to check antisocial elements and secure peace and order in the society. The Kshatriya was enjoined to provide every person the work most suited to him. Kautilya says:
“The king should not allow people to severe from or fail in their duties. The three other Varnas when protected and guarded by the Kshatriya will abide by their duties and vocations”
The state is not above and beyond ethics, nor is it end in itself. State is only a means. According to the Hindu view the means are as important as the ends. Means must have some moral basis. The Kshatriyas are regarded as the guardians and also the servants of the law.
The Vaishyas represent the economic aspect of the Society. They underline the human tendency to possess and enjoy, to give and take. Being practical minded the Vaishyas engaged themselves in trade and many productive activities. They are always exposed to temptations to acquire wealth. They are enjoined to exploit the resources of the society efficiently and make a prudent judgment of all transactions they make. They were advised to spurn earning wealth for its own sake and develop qualities of humanity and sincere service to the society.
Agriculture, trade and commerce provide the life blood to the society. Engaged in these vocations, the Vaishyas have to perform a very important role. A perverted Vaishya prone to exploitation and racketeering can do immense harm to the entire society. Hence the king was enjoined to prevent him from treading the path of perversion and to ensure his cooperation in the task of social welfare and maintain stability in the society. The Vaishyas were enjoined to shed greed and realize the true and moral object of the wealth. In the scheme of the Varna system accumulation of personal wealth has not been visualized as the sole motive of this class.
The fourth Varna was that of the Shudra. Whereas the Brahmin class consisted of men of learning, science, literature and thoughts the Kshatriyas were men of action and velour, the Vaishya represented the productive and acquisitive nature of men, the Shudra class consisted of men physically strong and capable of doing good work but possessing low I.Q. and was incapable of dealing with abstract ideas. They were as important part of the society as other three classes. Hence their contribution to society can not be rated low or less valuable than that of the others.
Concept of Svadharma in Gita : It will be noted that the Varna system as conceived by the Hindu philosophers is based on the qualities (Guna) and functions (Karma) of men. It is a fact that different types of individuals having different qualities to perform different types of functions and society needs all of them. Hindu philosophers have laid down only the manner in which individuals should discharge their duties, required to be performed by the class they belong. These duties have been called the svadharma of each class in the Gita. In later times this expression was interpreted to signify caste duties. As there were four different classes which had become hereditary in the course of time, class was taken to mean caste and it is presumed that every caste has its own clear cut profession or duties and that svadharma indicates that. However if by svadharma Gita meant that the descendants of washer men should do nothing but washing clothes and that the descendants of leather workers should do nothing but make shoes for all times then the Gita would not be a scripture with a universal message. This would amount to lowering the sanctity of the Gita. Perhaps the Hindu philosophers were aware of the possibility of such a misinterpretation of its dictum. Hence in the last chapter of the Gita a clarification has been added to connect svadharma with svabhava – one’s profession and duty according to his nature. It says “Better is one’s duty, though done imperfectly (vigunatah) than the duty of the others (paradharmat) done perfectly. He who does his duties imposed on him by his nature (svabhavaniyatam) commits no sin (xviii, 47).” It is indeed one of the remarkable features of the Gita that it strikes an extra ordinarily modern tone in its clear and unmistakable recognition of natural dispositions of the individuality of men. The Manusmriti (x, 65) echoes the same sentiment when it categorically declares, “a Shudra becomes a Brahmin and a Brahmin a Shudra by his conduct.” Mahabharata also says, “He is called a Brahmin in whom are truth, abstention from injury to others, compassion, shame, benevolence and penance …. If these characteristics are observed in a Shudra, he is then not a Shudra and if they are lacking in a Brahmin he is not a Brahmin. “ (XII.182,3-8).
The story of Satyakama in Chhandogya Upanishad is worth recounting. Satyakama when he attained the age of initiation to studies, went to Rishi Gautam and expressed his desire to be his resident student. The Rishi before admitting him as his disciple, as was the custom those days, asked the boy” What is your gotra(lineage)”.
“I shall have to ascertain it from my mother” said the boy and he went to his mother. But she could not enlighten him. The mother said, “My son, in my youth , I lived with many as a maid servant when I conceived you. I do not know the gotra you belong to. I am Jabala and you are Satyakaam Jaabaala. The boy returned and told the Rishi exactly what his mother had told him. The preceptor pleased with his truthfulness accepted his request and admitted him as his student as a Brahmin. The boy lived with his preceptor in his house and in due course himself became a great Rishi. This story points out that speaking truth was an essential characteristic of a Brahmin.
Varna :An Organic whole : Another important feature of the varna system is that it is conceived as an organic whole. It is expressly stated that the Brahmin is the mouth, Kshatriyas are its arms and Vaishyas are the thighs and shudras are feet of the cosmic man- Purusha. The Varna representing different organs of the cosmic body are supposed to perform their natural functions. The mouth is primarily the seat of speech. Hence Brahmins have been assigned duty of teaching and instructing. They are the spokesmen of the society. The arms are symbolic of valour. Hence Kshatriyas have been visualized as protector. If attacked arms instantly come forward to protect the body. Vaishyas placed as they are in the lower part of the body signify that they are meant to produce food for the sustenance of the others and the Shudras symbolize the feet and signify that they are responsible for holding the society and its movement. The whole social organization has been conceived symbolically as one human body- the ‘Body-social’ with its limbs representing the social classes based on principle of division of labour.
As an organic whole all parts of the body are mutually interdependent and they complement and co-operate with each other. Every section is equally important and indispensable for the welfare of the society as a whole. Though different Varnas are supposed to carry out different functions , they are bound by a sense of unity and brotherhood, each class contributing the fruits of its own labour to the society.
Analyzing the idea behind Varna system it has been pointed out ,”There will always be social differences and an ideal of the human equality is as impossible as a body in which every organ is a stomach or brain. Human equality, however, is a matter of heart. In the heart all persons are equal.”
The theory of four Varnas must have resulted from a careful observation of society in early times and all social constituents of Hinduism must have been modeled as far as possible on the Varna doctrine. In modern times, however, Hindu society has grown so far away from the original ideal that it is hard to imagine that it was once based on it.
In the Varna theory we have the blueprint for an ideal social organization.
The fourfold division of the society is not confined to India alone. Similar institutions are found outside India also. In ancient as well as modern civilizations a fundamental fourfold division is noticed everywhere. They are the labor class, the government servants and administrators , businessmen and farmers, educationists and priests. The universal application of the Varna division of society needs no substantiation.
Reference to Varna as a universally applicable theory of social organization is highly suggestive of caste system as a stark reality. It is contented that Varnasharma and the caste system in particular are based on inequitable principles. It exalted the Brahmins and confers almost divine honours upon them, while it reduced the Shudra and Chandala to the most degraded position of slaves, denying them the most elementary human rights of ordinary citizenship.
Caste System: It is necessary to emphasize the distinction between the Varna and Caste (jati) which is very often forgotten and one is considered as synonym of the other. It is the height of misunderstanding to consider caste to be the same as Varna.
The Varna system as we have discussed above is an ideal classification of socio-political organization and the caste system symbolizes an attempt to institutionalize that grand ideal. Like many other ideals Varna system is also difficult to materialize. Hence the divergence between the ideal and the actual, which only vaguely approximates the ideal. The Varna ideal was based on sound psychological principles. But when it was put into actual practice, the lofty perception was gradually blurred and the caste system was found out to be a caricature on the noble principles of the Varna ideal. The laudable ideal of mutual cooperation was transformed into mutual recrimination. Economic interests of different sections of the society brought forth all evils of caste system. The Varna system insisted on duties but over the time the sections placed at advantageous positions emphasized and loudly claimed only their rights forgetting their duties.
The Varna system was a difficult ideal to achieve. This may be the reason why it was gradually forgotten. Imperfection is inherent in human nature. Greed and arrogance led to wrong interpretations of the Varna system in order to suit particular sections and thus the society was divided into the so-called higher and lower castes based on the birth of the individual instead of his qualities (guna) and functions (karma). Those engaged in manual work were unjustly placed at the bottom of the society.
The caste system as we see it in operation today is entirely due to the ignorance of the grand ideals of the Varna system visualized and propounded by ancient Hindu philosophers.
The problem involved in the caste system is most complex. The literature on the subject is quite vast, no less than ten thousand books have been written on this subject and their authors rarely agree among themselves. There are as many theories of origin and operation of the system as there are authors. It is neither possible, nor necessary to deal in detail with the origin and evolution of the caste system and in what stage and situations the Varna system was converted into the caste system.
Origin of Caste System; There are two main theories commonly accepted in this regard. The first is related to the race suggesting feelings of superiority and inferiority based on color of the skin and second related to idea of functions (division of labor) becoming hereditary.
The British historians following in the footsteps of the German racist theoreticians propounded the theory that India has always been open to foreign conquests and that the Dravidians like other conquerors came to India from the north-west and they were true predecessors of the Aryans. The Aryans who were fair colored did not want to mix with the Dravidian in order to maintain their racial purity as the latter were black colored and their civilization was also considered inferior to that of the Aryans. References in the Rigveda to black Dasyu and fair colored Aryans was quoted in support of this theory. The Aryans also reserved the good and attractive trades and professions for themselves.
This argument of superiority and inferiority was based on the arrogance of the imperialist Europeans who claimed superiority over non-whites on the basis of the color of the skin. But this argument is open to criticism, particularly in the context of the Aryans and the Dravidians, because the Dravidians themselves were fair in complexion than the aborigines. In that case the Aryans conquerors would have naturally adopted the readymade institution of Varna (color) based division of society from the Dravidian. But there is no evidence to show that the Dravidians civilization was in any way inferior to that of the Aryans. Hence this argument of racial superiority is fallacious.
When the color of the skin differs markedly as in the case of the South Africa, there may be apprehension of purity of the race being compromised. But in India the color of the Aryans and non-Aryans particularly Aryans and Dravidians, did not differ substantially and marked. Hence, preservation of racial purity based on the difference of color of the skin and level of civilization between the Aryans and the Dravidians cannot be the basis of the Varna system. Hence, the basis of the Varna system needs to be further investigated.
In the Mahabharata it is stated that there was a time (Satya Yuga) when all men were one community, Brahmin that is born of Brahma. The fighting class according to Mahabharata is said to have emerged in the Treta Yuga and lastly the trading group of Vaishyas came into being. This account of Mahabharata seems to correspond to the real stages in the evolution of caste-system, people of a class bearing the same name and engaged in the same occupation based on birth, being main characteristics of caste system.
It was however, possible in the early age for a man to be a rishi- composer of hymns, his father a physician (Bhishaga) and the mother a corn grinder, all living together under the same roof. (Rigveda).
The evidence of Purusha Sukta in (Rigveda X.90.12) referred to above is important. In this Sukta (hymn) the Brahmin, Rajanya i.e. Kshatriya and Vaishya have been grouped together as they have been described to be identical with three limbs of the cosmic man (Purusha) but the Shudra is said it have been born (Ajayata) from his feet. It will be seen that in that age there was only twofold division of society. The first three classes comprised of one unit and the Shudras comprised the other unit. Although fissures in the first three sections seem to have arisen , it was not so deep as to divide them in three separate exclusive groups.
In ancient India the ruler was required to protect the social order founded on the system of Varna and Ashrama. He was asked to ensure that every individual performed duties of his Varna and Ashrama as laid down in the Vedas. This kind of social order was regarded most sacrosanct and immutable as it had the sanction of the Vedas which are considered divine creations. In this situation one may be tempted to assume that Vedic religion was the state religion and that the Hindu state was a theocracy. But such an assumption is unwarranted as there never has been an organized theological body to intervene in the affairs of the Hindu state to enforce religious sanctions.
Indian culture as against the western concept of culture proceeded from the initial fervor of one’s ‘duty’ in which lies the guarantee of his ‘right’ while it is the revere case in the west. In the words of Manu, “He who persists in discharging his duties in the right manner obtains even in this world, fulfillment of all desires he may have cherished and reaches deathless state (in life beyond).”
Let us know what is Varna? Varna is generally translated as ‘caste’ which is also used to denote ‘Jati’. But Varna and Jati in the Indian context have two different connotations. Whereas Varna, denotes class. ‘Jati’ means a community. Hindu philosophers had the psychological insight to realize that human beings have a variegated nature, capacities and potentials, for development, Diversities in nature and temperaments of men are reflected in the planning of Hindu social organization.
The Varna classification of Hindu society is based on division of human beings in four distinct categories. Each category comprises individuals with similar qualities. This classification represents not exclusive but dominant characteristics of individuals. Aptitude of individuals for certain type of work was the sole criterion of classification.
In this classification society is divided into four varnas viz; Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra, each entrusted with specific duties, keeping in view the general make-up of their mind (guna) and aptitude for doing the work (Karma) assigned to it. This classification aims at creation of maximum efficiency, progress, harmony and ultimately the welfare of the society as a whole, each class strives to achieve maximum efficiency in discharging its duties without encroaching on the specific duties of other classes. Each class has been considered the best in its field capable of attaining the highest perfection in discharging its duties (dharma) to the best of its abilities.
Duties of Varnas: Kautilya, the famous socio-political thinker of India has described the duties of four varnas as follows:-
“The duties of the Brahmins are – studying (adhyayanam), teaching (adhyapanam), performing sacrifices for self (yajanam) officiating as priests to other people (yajanam) making gifts (Dana) and receiving gifts (pratigraha).
The duties of the Kshatriyas are – studying, performing sacrifices for self, making gifts living by the profession of arms (shastrajiva) protecting beings. (Bhootarakshanam).
The duties of the Vaishyas are studying, performing sacrifices for self, making gifts, agriculture (Krishi), cattle rearing (pashupaalanam) and trade (vanijya).
The duties of the Shudras are – service of the twice born (dvijas), engaging in an economic calling, viz, agriculture, cattle rearing and trade varta) and acting, dancing etc. (Kushilava).
A Brahmin in this scheme of classification represents the intellectual class of the society, but he was not expected to be a mere intellectual to know about ideas, without corresponding humility about his knowledge. It was a part of his duty to share his knowledge with others willingly. It may be underlined here that this is the picture of an ideal society as conceived by the Hindu Philosophers. A true Brahmin is expected to be above class feelings and prejudices, possessing serenity, self restraint, austerity and belief in God. These are the attributes of Brahmin – ‘One who has forsaken wrath and infatuation , though himself injured never injures others, he always speaks the truth and ready to serve the elders, is devoted to studies and pure in mind, free from lust and anger. Such person is a true Brahmin(Gita XVIII,42)’ ‘The high minded man, who loves all people as his own self, knows what is right and applies himself to all righteous acts, is a true Brahmin. Possession of all these qualities makes the Brahmin possesses an abiding sense of humility’. (Gita V.25)
In the Varna system the Brahmin has been visualized as capable of providing moral guidance and leadership to the society. As he is not in pursuit of power and wealth, the Hindu philosophers were wise enough to place the selfless intellectual at the top of the society- subordinating the military to the spiritual authority. The military authority with its natural aggressiveness is quite capable of playing havoc with the whole society. In varna system the Brahmin is visualized to bear the responsibility of restraining martial elements and thus protecting the society from becoming the victim of their excesses. It would thus be seen that the Varna system aimed at protecting and safeguarding the interest of the society as a whole.
Power corrupts and absolute power corrupts absolutely. Hindu philosophers were aware of this universal truth of human nature. Hence they considered fit to make an arrangement that one immediately concerned with the exercise of power should be kept under restraint to abuse his power. The type of Brahmin described above was considered as the ideal class capable of guarding and safeguarding legitimate interests of the society.
According to the blue print of Varna system the Brahmin is supposed to lay down the ideals of the society in accordance with the Dharma in order to maintain high standard of morality. The Kshatriyas have been assigned the task of implementing those ideals. The application of the principles of Dharma involves responsibility of protecting the people, preventing social disharmony and punishing offenders. A true Kshatriya has been portrayed as possessing heroic determination to secure the safety of society. He is fearless and courageous. His dynamic spirit is accountable for his fearlessness even while facing imminent death.
The Kshatriya as the military and ruling class represents the political aspect of the society. The duties of a Kshatriya and a king are almost identical, for the King was generally a Kshatriya. As a ruler he was charged with the responsibility of creating conditions in the society conducive to the peaceful pursuit of various vocations without any let or hindrance or interference from any quarter.
Protection means primarily protection of the person and property of the citizens from antisocial elements. To discharge his responsibilities he has of necessity to meet out punishment and use of force(danda) in order to deliver justice and maintain peace and order. The Brahmin laid down policy (Niti) and the Kshatriya implemented it. Meeting out punishment (danda) is not doing violence. It needs to be used only to check antisocial elements and secure peace and order in the society. The Kshatriya was enjoined to provide every person the work most suited to him. Kautilya says:
“The king should not allow people to severe from or fail in their duties. The three other Varnas when protected and guarded by the Kshatriya will abide by their duties and vocations”
The state is not above and beyond ethics, nor is it end in itself. State is only a means. According to the Hindu view the means are as important as the ends. Means must have some moral basis. The Kshatriyas are regarded as the guardians and also the servants of the law.
The Vaishyas represent the economic aspect of the Society. They underline the human tendency to possess and enjoy, to give and take. Being practical minded the Vaishyas engaged themselves in trade and many productive activities. They are always exposed to temptations to acquire wealth. They are enjoined to exploit the resources of the society efficiently and make a prudent judgment of all transactions they make. They were advised to spurn earning wealth for its own sake and develop qualities of humanity and sincere service to the society.
Agriculture, trade and commerce provide the life blood to the society. Engaged in these vocations, the Vaishyas have to perform a very important role. A perverted Vaishya prone to exploitation and racketeering can do immense harm to the entire society. Hence the king was enjoined to prevent him from treading the path of perversion and to ensure his cooperation in the task of social welfare and maintain stability in the society. The Vaishyas were enjoined to shed greed and realize the true and moral object of the wealth. In the scheme of the Varna system accumulation of personal wealth has not been visualized as the sole motive of this class.
The fourth Varna was that of the Shudra. Whereas the Brahmin class consisted of men of learning, science, literature and thoughts the Kshatriyas were men of action and velour, the Vaishya represented the productive and acquisitive nature of men, the Shudra class consisted of men physically strong and capable of doing good work but possessing low I.Q. and was incapable of dealing with abstract ideas. They were as important part of the society as other three classes. Hence their contribution to society can not be rated low or less valuable than that of the others.
Concept of Svadharma in Gita : It will be noted that the Varna system as conceived by the Hindu philosophers is based on the qualities (Guna) and functions (Karma) of men. It is a fact that different types of individuals having different qualities to perform different types of functions and society needs all of them. Hindu philosophers have laid down only the manner in which individuals should discharge their duties, required to be performed by the class they belong. These duties have been called the svadharma of each class in the Gita. In later times this expression was interpreted to signify caste duties. As there were four different classes which had become hereditary in the course of time, class was taken to mean caste and it is presumed that every caste has its own clear cut profession or duties and that svadharma indicates that. However if by svadharma Gita meant that the descendants of washer men should do nothing but washing clothes and that the descendants of leather workers should do nothing but make shoes for all times then the Gita would not be a scripture with a universal message. This would amount to lowering the sanctity of the Gita. Perhaps the Hindu philosophers were aware of the possibility of such a misinterpretation of its dictum. Hence in the last chapter of the Gita a clarification has been added to connect svadharma with svabhava – one’s profession and duty according to his nature. It says “Better is one’s duty, though done imperfectly (vigunatah) than the duty of the others (paradharmat) done perfectly. He who does his duties imposed on him by his nature (svabhavaniyatam) commits no sin (xviii, 47).” It is indeed one of the remarkable features of the Gita that it strikes an extra ordinarily modern tone in its clear and unmistakable recognition of natural dispositions of the individuality of men. The Manusmriti (x, 65) echoes the same sentiment when it categorically declares, “a Shudra becomes a Brahmin and a Brahmin a Shudra by his conduct.” Mahabharata also says, “He is called a Brahmin in whom are truth, abstention from injury to others, compassion, shame, benevolence and penance …. If these characteristics are observed in a Shudra, he is then not a Shudra and if they are lacking in a Brahmin he is not a Brahmin. “ (XII.182,3-8).
The story of Satyakama in Chhandogya Upanishad is worth recounting. Satyakama when he attained the age of initiation to studies, went to Rishi Gautam and expressed his desire to be his resident student. The Rishi before admitting him as his disciple, as was the custom those days, asked the boy” What is your gotra(lineage)”.
“I shall have to ascertain it from my mother” said the boy and he went to his mother. But she could not enlighten him. The mother said, “My son, in my youth , I lived with many as a maid servant when I conceived you. I do not know the gotra you belong to. I am Jabala and you are Satyakaam Jaabaala. The boy returned and told the Rishi exactly what his mother had told him. The preceptor pleased with his truthfulness accepted his request and admitted him as his student as a Brahmin. The boy lived with his preceptor in his house and in due course himself became a great Rishi. This story points out that speaking truth was an essential characteristic of a Brahmin.
Varna :An Organic whole : Another important feature of the varna system is that it is conceived as an organic whole. It is expressly stated that the Brahmin is the mouth, Kshatriyas are its arms and Vaishyas are the thighs and shudras are feet of the cosmic man- Purusha. The Varna representing different organs of the cosmic body are supposed to perform their natural functions. The mouth is primarily the seat of speech. Hence Brahmins have been assigned duty of teaching and instructing. They are the spokesmen of the society. The arms are symbolic of valour. Hence Kshatriyas have been visualized as protector. If attacked arms instantly come forward to protect the body. Vaishyas placed as they are in the lower part of the body signify that they are meant to produce food for the sustenance of the others and the Shudras symbolize the feet and signify that they are responsible for holding the society and its movement. The whole social organization has been conceived symbolically as one human body- the ‘Body-social’ with its limbs representing the social classes based on principle of division of labour.
As an organic whole all parts of the body are mutually interdependent and they complement and co-operate with each other. Every section is equally important and indispensable for the welfare of the society as a whole. Though different Varnas are supposed to carry out different functions , they are bound by a sense of unity and brotherhood, each class contributing the fruits of its own labour to the society.
Analyzing the idea behind Varna system it has been pointed out ,”There will always be social differences and an ideal of the human equality is as impossible as a body in which every organ is a stomach or brain. Human equality, however, is a matter of heart. In the heart all persons are equal.”
The theory of four Varnas must have resulted from a careful observation of society in early times and all social constituents of Hinduism must have been modeled as far as possible on the Varna doctrine. In modern times, however, Hindu society has grown so far away from the original ideal that it is hard to imagine that it was once based on it.
In the Varna theory we have the blueprint for an ideal social organization.
The fourfold division of the society is not confined to India alone. Similar institutions are found outside India also. In ancient as well as modern civilizations a fundamental fourfold division is noticed everywhere. They are the labor class, the government servants and administrators , businessmen and farmers, educationists and priests. The universal application of the Varna division of society needs no substantiation.
Reference to Varna as a universally applicable theory of social organization is highly suggestive of caste system as a stark reality. It is contented that Varnasharma and the caste system in particular are based on inequitable principles. It exalted the Brahmins and confers almost divine honours upon them, while it reduced the Shudra and Chandala to the most degraded position of slaves, denying them the most elementary human rights of ordinary citizenship.
Caste System: It is necessary to emphasize the distinction between the Varna and Caste (jati) which is very often forgotten and one is considered as synonym of the other. It is the height of misunderstanding to consider caste to be the same as Varna.
The Varna system as we have discussed above is an ideal classification of socio-political organization and the caste system symbolizes an attempt to institutionalize that grand ideal. Like many other ideals Varna system is also difficult to materialize. Hence the divergence between the ideal and the actual, which only vaguely approximates the ideal. The Varna ideal was based on sound psychological principles. But when it was put into actual practice, the lofty perception was gradually blurred and the caste system was found out to be a caricature on the noble principles of the Varna ideal. The laudable ideal of mutual cooperation was transformed into mutual recrimination. Economic interests of different sections of the society brought forth all evils of caste system. The Varna system insisted on duties but over the time the sections placed at advantageous positions emphasized and loudly claimed only their rights forgetting their duties.
The Varna system was a difficult ideal to achieve. This may be the reason why it was gradually forgotten. Imperfection is inherent in human nature. Greed and arrogance led to wrong interpretations of the Varna system in order to suit particular sections and thus the society was divided into the so-called higher and lower castes based on the birth of the individual instead of his qualities (guna) and functions (karma). Those engaged in manual work were unjustly placed at the bottom of the society.
The caste system as we see it in operation today is entirely due to the ignorance of the grand ideals of the Varna system visualized and propounded by ancient Hindu philosophers.
The problem involved in the caste system is most complex. The literature on the subject is quite vast, no less than ten thousand books have been written on this subject and their authors rarely agree among themselves. There are as many theories of origin and operation of the system as there are authors. It is neither possible, nor necessary to deal in detail with the origin and evolution of the caste system and in what stage and situations the Varna system was converted into the caste system.
Origin of Caste System; There are two main theories commonly accepted in this regard. The first is related to the race suggesting feelings of superiority and inferiority based on color of the skin and second related to idea of functions (division of labor) becoming hereditary.
The British historians following in the footsteps of the German racist theoreticians propounded the theory that India has always been open to foreign conquests and that the Dravidians like other conquerors came to India from the north-west and they were true predecessors of the Aryans. The Aryans who were fair colored did not want to mix with the Dravidian in order to maintain their racial purity as the latter were black colored and their civilization was also considered inferior to that of the Aryans. References in the Rigveda to black Dasyu and fair colored Aryans was quoted in support of this theory. The Aryans also reserved the good and attractive trades and professions for themselves.
This argument of superiority and inferiority was based on the arrogance of the imperialist Europeans who claimed superiority over non-whites on the basis of the color of the skin. But this argument is open to criticism, particularly in the context of the Aryans and the Dravidians, because the Dravidians themselves were fair in complexion than the aborigines. In that case the Aryans conquerors would have naturally adopted the readymade institution of Varna (color) based division of society from the Dravidian. But there is no evidence to show that the Dravidians civilization was in any way inferior to that of the Aryans. Hence this argument of racial superiority is fallacious.
When the color of the skin differs markedly as in the case of the South Africa, there may be apprehension of purity of the race being compromised. But in India the color of the Aryans and non-Aryans particularly Aryans and Dravidians, did not differ substantially and marked. Hence, preservation of racial purity based on the difference of color of the skin and level of civilization between the Aryans and the Dravidians cannot be the basis of the Varna system. Hence, the basis of the Varna system needs to be further investigated.
In the Mahabharata it is stated that there was a time (Satya Yuga) when all men were one community, Brahmin that is born of Brahma. The fighting class according to Mahabharata is said to have emerged in the Treta Yuga and lastly the trading group of Vaishyas came into being. This account of Mahabharata seems to correspond to the real stages in the evolution of caste-system, people of a class bearing the same name and engaged in the same occupation based on birth, being main characteristics of caste system.
It was however, possible in the early age for a man to be a rishi- composer of hymns, his father a physician (Bhishaga) and the mother a corn grinder, all living together under the same roof. (Rigveda).
The evidence of Purusha Sukta in (Rigveda X.90.12) referred to above is important. In this Sukta (hymn) the Brahmin, Rajanya i.e. Kshatriya and Vaishya have been grouped together as they have been described to be identical with three limbs of the cosmic man (Purusha) but the Shudra is said it have been born (Ajayata) from his feet. It will be seen that in that age there was only twofold division of society. The first three classes comprised of one unit and the Shudras comprised the other unit. Although fissures in the first three sections seem to have arisen , it was not so deep as to divide them in three separate exclusive groups.
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